The Dragon's Shadow: How China's Anti-Imperialist Struggle Became Imperial Ambition

Introduction: From Humiliation to Hegemony

The historical trajectory of China’s foreign policy represents one of the most dramatic transformations in modern geopolitics. From the brutal century of humiliation beginning with the Opium Wars to its current position as a challenger to American hegemony, China’s journey reflects the complex interplay between historical trauma, civilizational identity, and great power ambition. This article examines how China’s legitimate resistance to Western imperialism has gradually morphed into its own distinctive form of imperial projection, creating new challenges for the Global South’s liberation struggles.

Historical Context: The Century of Humiliation

China’s modern geopolitical consciousness was forged in the fires of imperial subjugation. The period from the First Opium War (1841-1842) through World War II represents what Chinese historiography terms the “century of humiliation” - a systematic dismantling of Chinese sovereignty through military defeat, unequal treaties, and territorial concessions. The loss of Shandong to Japan following World War I, despite China’s contribution to the Allied cause, became a particularly potent symbol of Western betrayal and sparked the May Fourth Movement that continues to shape Chinese nationalism.

This historical trauma fundamentally shaped the Chinese Communist Party’s worldview, with current leader Xi Jinping frequently referencing the need to overcome this humiliation through national rejuvenation. The concept of “geming” or revolution became understood not merely as political change but as restoration of cosmic order - a return to China’s natural position of preeminence in global affairs.

The Making of a Modern Empire

China’s contemporary foreign policy represents a sophisticated synthesis of historical grievance and forward-looking strategy. The Tianxia doctrine, often translated as “All Under Heaven,” provides the philosophical framework for China’s vision of international order. While presented as a model of harmonious coexistence, critics argue it masks a hierarchical worldview with China at its center, not dissimilar to colonial-era spheres of influence.

The Belt and Road Initiative represents the practical manifestation of this vision - a massive infrastructure project spanning continents that simultaneously promotes economic development while expanding Chinese influence. As Bruno Maçães observes, it represents “a global order infused with Chinese political principles and placing China at its heart.” This combination of soft power projection and economic leverage has enabled China to challenge Western dominance without directly confronting the existing international order.

Hybrid Warfare and Legal Imperialism

China has developed particularly sophisticated forms of “hybrid warfare” that blend conventional military preparedness with non-kinetic tactics. The “three warfares” doctrine - encompassing psychological, media, and legal warfare - represents a comprehensive approach to achieving strategic objectives without resorting to open conflict.

Legal warfare or “lawfare” has become a particularly effective tool. China’s manipulation of international law to justify its South China Sea claims, despite numerous rulings against them, demonstrates how legal instruments can be weaponized for expansionist purposes. Similarly, the erosion of Hong Kong’s autonomy through national security legislation shows how legal frameworks can be used to suppress dissent while maintaining a veneer of legitimacy.

The Russo-Chinese Nexus: Anti-Western Alliance or New Imperial Partnership?

The strategic partnership between Russia and China represents one of the most significant geopolitical developments of the 21st century. Their “no limits” partnership, formalized just before Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, frames itself as resistance to Western unilateralism and promotion of multipolarity. However, this alliance also represents the convergence of two imperial traditions with long histories of territorial expansion and sphere-of-influence politics.

China’s support for Russia’s war in Ukraine, both diplomatic and material, reveals the contradictions in its anti-imperialist rhetoric. While positioning itself as champion of the Global South against Western domination, Beijing enables a brutal war of aggression that violates the very sovereignty principles it claims to defend.

Taiwan: The Ultimate Test

The Taiwan issue represents the most dangerous flashpoint in China’s rise. Beijing’s insistence on “reunification” by any means necessary, combined with its dismissal of Taiwanese self-determination, demonstrates how anti-colonial rhetoric can be used to justify contemporary expansionism. The parallel drawn by Japanese leadership between Ukraine today and East Asia tomorrow underscores the global stakes of China’s Taiwan policy.

China’s military modernization and hybrid warfare capabilities are increasingly oriented toward achieving Taiwan reunification. The development of amphibious assault capabilities and legal justifications for intervention creates a dangerous momentum toward conflict that could drag the entire Global South into a great power confrontation.

Critical Reflection: Between Western Hypocrisy and Chinese Authoritarianism

The tragedy of contemporary geopolitics lies in the false choice presented to developing nations. Western powers, particularly the United States, maintain a system of international rules that they routinely violate when convenient. From illegal invasions to unilateral sanctions, Western exceptionalism has undermined the credibility of the liberal international order.

However, China’s alternative represents not liberation but substitution of one hierarchical system for another. The Tianxia model, while framed in cultural rather than racial terms, still positions China as the civilizational center to which other nations must accommodate. China’s treatment of minority populations, particularly Uyghurs in Xinjiang, demonstrates that respect for human rights remains secondary to state control.

Conclusion: Toward Genuine Multipolarity

The challenge for the Global South is to navigate between these competing imperialisms while advancing a genuinely emancipatory agenda. This requires recognizing that opposition to Western hegemony does not automatically make China a progressive force. True multipolarity means creating space for diverse development models and civilizational perspectives without falling under the domination of any great power.

Developing nations must develop their own frameworks for engagement that prioritize sovereignty, human rights, and sustainable development. This means critically engaging with Chinese investment while resisting political conditionality, and maintaining diplomatic autonomy in great power conflicts. The Non-Aligned Movement of the 21st century must be smarter and more assertive than its predecessor.

Ultimately, the struggle against imperialism cannot be won by replacing Western masters with Eastern ones. China’s legitimate grievances against historical injustice should not blind us to its contemporary authoritarian practices. The Global South’s future depends on building institutions and alliances based on genuine equality and mutual respect, not simply choosing between competing spheres of influence.

The dragon has indeed awakened, but whether it brings liberation or new forms of domination remains the central question of our geopolitical moment. The answer will determine not only China’s place in the world, but the fate of billions across the Global South seeking genuine self-determination beyond the shadows of empire.